HIV Protease

(A) KMS11 and (B) L363 cells were plated in 5mM glucose medium with ritonavir or DMSO (D) for 17 hours. Glucose consumption rates are normalized to untreated cells (not shown). (C) KMS11 and (D) L363 cells were treated with ritonavir or DMSO for 72 hours. Relative viable cell numbers were determined by MTS assay and normalized to untreated cells (not shown).

Low-micromolar amounts of chloroquine, chlorpromazine, loperamide, and lopinavir inhibit MERS-CoV-induced cytopathology. Huh7 cells in 96-well plates were infected with MERS-CoV isolate EMC/2012 (MOI, 0.005) in the presence of 0 to 20 uM LPV. Cells were incubated for 2 days, and cell viability was monitored using an MTS assay. In addition, the potential toxicity of compound treatment only was monitored in parallel mock-infected Huh7 cell cultures. Graphs show the results (averages and standard deviations [SD]) of a representative experiment that was performed in quadruplicate. All experiments were repeated at least twice. For each compound, the calculated EC50, CC50, and SI values are given.

Protease inhibitors induce macroautophagy. JEG3 were seeded on glass chamber slides (1 x 10₄ cell per chamber; 8-well μ slides; Ibidi, Martinsried, Germany), grown for 24 h under cell culture conditions, and treated for 24 h with 0-10 ug/ml of either lopinavir/ritonavir or atazanavir. Cells were then incubated for 30 min with the blue-green fluorescent autophagy marker monodansylcadaverine and viewed under a fluorescence microscope.

HIV PIs variably alter intracellular HIV epitope stability. (A) HLA-A02–restricted SL9 epitope (SLYNTVATL, aa 77–85 in HIV-1 Gag p17) was degraded in PBMC extracts pretreated with DMSO (control, circles), 5 µM of Nelfinavir (triangles) or 5 µM of Saquinavir (squares). Remaining peptide was quantified by RP-HPLC analysis after 0, 10, 30 and 60 minutes. 100% represents the amount of peptide at time 0 calculated as the surface under the peptide peak detected by RP-HPLC (815.986, 821.569, and 813.118 for DMSO, Saquinavir, and Nelfinavir, respectively). Times at which 50% of the SL9 peptide remained correspond to peptide half-lives (37 min, 52 min and 24 min for Control, Saquinavir and Nelfinavir respectively). (B–F) HLA-A02–SL9, HLA-B57-KF11, HLAB57-ISW9, HLA-B57-TW10 and HLA-A11-ATK9 epitopes (from B to F respectively) were degraded in PBMC extracts pretreated with DMSO, 2 µM or 5 µM PI (Saquinavir, Ritonavir, Nelfinavir, Atazanavir or Darunavir). The cytosolic half-lives in control condition were 33.87, 25.66, 14.83, 119.4 and 37.21 minutes for SL9, KF11, ISW9, TW10 and ATK9 respectively. Fold differences of each epitope half-life upon treatment compared to control are presented in each panel. All data represent the average of 4 different experiments using 4 different PBMC extracts. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001, 1-way ANOVA with Dunnett’s post-test.
 

(A) KMS11 and (B) L363 cells were plated in 5mM glucose medium with ritonavir or DMSO (D) for 17 hours. Glucose consumption rates are normalized to untreated cells (not shown). (C) KMS11 and (D) L363 cells were treated with ritonavir or DMSO for 72 hours. Relative viable cell numbers were determined by MTS assay and normalized to untreated cells (not shown).

Low-micromolar amounts of chloroquine, chlorpromazine, loperamide, and lopinavir inhibit MERS-CoV-induced cytopathology. Huh7 cells in 96-well plates were infected with MERS-CoV isolate EMC/2012 (MOI, 0.005) in the presence of 0 to 20 uM LPV. Cells were incubated for 2 days, and cell viability was monitored using an MTS assay. In addition, the potential toxicity of compound treatment only was monitored in parallel mock-infected Huh7 cell cultures. Graphs show the results (averages and standard deviations [SD]) of a representative experiment that was performed in quadruplicate. All experiments were repeated at least twice. For each compound, the calculated EC50, CC50, and SI values are given.

Protease inhibitors induce macroautophagy. JEG3 were seeded on glass chamber slides (1 x 10₄ cell per chamber; 8-well μ slides; Ibidi, Martinsried, Germany), grown for 24 h under cell culture conditions, and treated for 24 h with 0-10 ug/ml of either lopinavir/ritonavir or atazanavir. Cells were then incubated for 30 min with the blue-green fluorescent autophagy marker monodansylcadaverine and viewed under a fluorescence microscope.

HIV PIs variably alter intracellular HIV epitope stability. (A) HLA-A02–restricted SL9 epitope (SLYNTVATL, aa 77–85 in HIV-1 Gag p17) was degraded in PBMC extracts pretreated with DMSO (control, circles), 5 µM of Nelfinavir (triangles) or 5 µM of Saquinavir (squares). Remaining peptide was quantified by RP-HPLC analysis after 0, 10, 30 and 60 minutes. 100% represents the amount of peptide at time 0 calculated as the surface under the peptide peak detected by RP-HPLC (815.986, 821.569, and 813.118 for DMSO, Saquinavir, and Nelfinavir, respectively). Times at which 50% of the SL9 peptide remained correspond to peptide half-lives (37 min, 52 min and 24 min for Control, Saquinavir and Nelfinavir respectively). (B–F) HLA-A02–SL9, HLA-B57-KF11, HLAB57-ISW9, HLA-B57-TW10 and HLA-A11-ATK9 epitopes (from B to F respectively) were degraded in PBMC extracts pretreated with DMSO, 2 µM or 5 µM PI (Saquinavir, Ritonavir, Nelfinavir, Atazanavir or Darunavir). The cytosolic half-lives in control condition were 33.87, 25.66, 14.83, 119.4 and 37.21 minutes for SL9, KF11, ISW9, TW10 and ATK9 respectively. Fold differences of each epitope half-life upon treatment compared to control are presented in each panel. All data represent the average of 4 different experiments using 4 different PBMC extracts. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001, 1-way ANOVA with Dunnett’s post-test.